Learning: The science of learning
Posted on Friday, July 23 @ 05:04:18 EDT
Topic: The Brain
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Excerpted from California State University Professor Masuyama's web....
It is important to know the learning strategies of language learners. The following sections briefly summarize the findings of Oxford (1990 & 2001), and O'Malley et. (1985). The research focuses on English-speaking students learning a foreign language and on non-English speakers learning English.
Oxford (2001) presents six categories of language learning strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective, and social (p. 359).
Cognitive: practicing and repeating new words; deductive reasoning, translating, analyzing; taking notes, highlighting, summarizing
Metacognitive: paying attention, organizing, setting goals and objectives, evaluating one’s own performance
Memory-related: creating mental linkages, such as grouping and placing words in context; applying images and sounds to represent things in memory; structured reviewing; using mechanical techniques, such as physical response
Compensatory: selecting a topic for discussion based on one’s knowledge of the language and shaping the discussion to avoid unknown vocabulary, guessing at words based on context, using gestures and coining words to communicate
Affective: using music or laughter as part of the learning process, rewarding oneself, making positive statements about one’s own progress, discussing feelings
Social: seeking correction, asking for clarification, working with peers, developing cultural understanding (Oxford 2001, pp. 363-365)
Some strategies are guided by exterior influences teachers, activities, interactions and others relate to the student’s personality, motivation, and knowledge about how to learn.
Oxford’s 1990 publication, Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know, is designed to make teachers and students aware of language learning strategies and the various ways they can be used to facilitate language learning.
In one section of the text, Oxford gives 19 different scenarios describing language learners with specific goals. The reader is to identify which language learning strategies could be used to accomplish the goal (Hancock, 2002). For example:
You are an English-speaking high school student learning Italian. You have a good sense of humor and enjoy jokes and cartoons. You decide to buy an Italian cookbook. It is about 100 pages long, full of cartoons. You want to read the book, understand the cartoons, and explain some of the cartoons to your friends who do not know Italian at all. Which language learning strategies do you need to use? (Oxford, 1990, p. 33)
For the above scenario, readers might identify the following strategies that could be used :
[Ed: consider how these strategies might be extended to make vocabular learning (dictionary memorization) effective and fun for you -- what is YOUR learning style?]
Cognitive: Analyze the language of the text (see how the cartoons convey humor)
Metacognitive: Set goals (decide how much to learn on your own and when to show the book to your friends)
Memory-related: Place words in context (certain vocabulary will be used for cooking)
Compensatory: Select which recipes or cartoons to focus on
Affective: Use laughter (understand language through the cartoons)
Social: Cooperate with peers (include your friends in your learning process)
This activity can be used to teach awareness of language learning strategies and ways to use them.
O'Malley & Chamot maximal list of strategies: O'Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper, & Rocco (1985)
A. Metacognitive strategies: 'higher order executive skills that may entail planning for, monitoring, or evaluating the success of a learning activity' (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, 44)
advance organisers: planning the learning activity in advance - "You review before you go into class".
directed attention: deciding to concentrate on general aspects of a learning task.
selective attention: deciding to pay attention to specific parts of the language input or the situation that will help learning.
self-management: trying to arrange the appropriate conditions for learning - "I sit in the front of the class so I can see the teacher".
advance preparation: planning the linguistic components for a forthcoming language task
self-monitoring: checking one's performance as one speaks - "Sometimes I cut short a word because I realize I've said it wrong".
delayed production: deliberately postponing speaking so that one may learn by listening "I talk when I have to, but I keep it short and hope I'll be understood".
self-evaluation: checking how well one is doing against one's own standards
self-reinforcement: giving oneself rewards for success
B. Cognitive strategies
repetition: imitating other people's speech overtly or silently.
resourcing: making use of language materials such as dictionaries.
directed physical response; responding physically 'as with directives'.
translation: 'using the first language as a basis for understanding and/or producing the L2'
grouping: organizing learning on the basis of 'common attributes'.
note-taking: writing down the gist etc of texts.
deduction: conscious application of rules to processing the L2.
recombination: putting together smaller meaningful elements into new wholes.
imagery: visualizing information for memory storage - "Pretend you are doing something indicated in the sentences to make up about the new word".
auditory representation: keeping a sound or sound sequence in the mind - "When you are trying to learn how to say something, speak it in your mind first".
key word: using key word memory techniques, such as identifying an L2 word with an L1 word that it sounds like.
conceptualization: 'placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language sequence'.
elaboration: 'relating new information to other concepts in memory'.
transfer: using previous knowledge to help language learning - "If they're talking about something I have already learnt (in Spanish), all I have to do is remember the information and try to put it into English"
inferencing: guessing meanings by using available information - "I think of the whole meaning of the sentence, and then I can get the meaning of the new word".
question for clarification: asking a teacher or native for explanation, help, etc.
C. Social Mediation strategies:
cooperation: working with fellow-students on language
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